Crime is Socially Constructed by Society Essay Example for Free

Crime is Socially Constructed by Society Essay Crime does not naturally occur. It arises due to its necessity in certain areas. In other words, it is socially constructed by the residents of crime ridden areas who live in societies that have criminal abilities. This is due to a number of factors, but most importantly, crime arises in certain places because of the blatant segregation of the rich and poor; people tend to live in areas with other people who make about the same amount of money, and in low income areas, people resort to crime to make a few extra dollars. High Crime Areas So generally, areas with high crime rates have these problems because they are poorer areas. The residents of such areas often do not have the options that the residents upper class neighborhoods have. Unemployment rates are much higher in poor communities (or areas with somewhat modestly priced homes, or public housing) and crime, therefore may, potentially, result in a greater monetary gain for individuals of poor areas when considering their other options. As crime is generally defined as something that goes against the law, it may be said that the laws broken in many petty crimes of poor communities were not put in place to protect the citizens of lower class communities. Although some are dangerous, illegal drugs often represent a means (and for many people, the only means) of monetary gain in communities with lower standards of living. Though illegal, drug trafficking is seen as a better alternative than starving by many of the people who participate in the trade. Given that laws are, if at all, at best loosely framed around general moral concepts of right and wrong, it may be said that not all crime would be commonly thought of as bad, when alternatives are revealed. For instance, it is illegal to urinate in public, but if one finds themselves in an unfamiliar area and is unable to locate a restroom, it is probably better for that person to relieve himself behind a tree in a park, than do so on himself, or harm his body by refraining from urinating for too long. Laws Often Overlooked or Disregarded There are a lot of actions that are illegal (and are therefore crimes) that are commonplace in certain communities or environments. For instance, it is socially (but still not legally) acceptable to drink in college settings, where many of the people are underage. And in poorer communities where selling drugs can lead to someone’s primary income, most people do not regard handling or selling drugs as a crime, but rather as a means of making money, and something that must be concealed when law enforcement is in the area. Generally, the people in areas where drugs are sold feel that law enforcement is trying to get in the way of their rights; the people do not believe that what they are doing is morally reprehensible. Crime Created by the Lawmaker, rather than the Lawbreaker It seems that, when residents of high crime areas consider some criminal activities to be unfairly restricted, crime is created by the government, which chose to outlaw certain actions. When lawbreakers do not consider their actions wrong, then to them, crime is indeed constructed by the government, which created laws. But from an authoritative view, crime is not created by the government, or exhibited by law enforcement who â€Å"creates† crime as officers make arrests, but rather it is created by the citizens who break laws that the government put into place. Any society that has laws, rules, or restrictions that in any way hinder the civil rights or serve to limit the actions of citizens will potentially have crime. The lawmakers will consider crime as a creation of the citizens, while many citizens will view crime as something created by the lawmakers who decided to limit civil freedoms. The reason that some areas have much higher rates of crime than others is that as crime is socially constructed, it is done so by necessity. This, combined with housing segregation of the rich and poor, generally designates poorer neighborhoods as areas of higher crime. But crime by its definition comes about in a different way. Values of Lawmaker and Lawbreaker may Differ Crime is justified by many lawmakers by their own moral standards. Suppose someone robs a convenience store, and carries away a few loaves of bread and some packaged meat. The thief probably does not completely disregard the wellbeing of the company or workers whom he robbed. He probably believes that they will still make it, even with the loss of the bread and meat. So in the thief’s mind, he considers that he needs the food, and the vending company does not. Crime is really a conception. Although it is supposed to align with what is not right, or an action that is in fact wrong, when people have the ability to transcend the view that all laws are to protect what is intrinsically right, they can look at laws as restrictions. And generally, as people break the law, they try to avoid those who guard those restrictions (which are the law enforcement officers). It makes it much easier for people who participate in criminal activities to be of this view, as it helps to eliminate guilt. But this view is only applicable in certain scenarios. Most people are not able to blow off a murder by allowing that it is only â€Å"wrong† because the law says so. In some cases, such as with murder, criminals may realize that according to their own morals a crime is wrong, and that explains why such serious crimes that are almost universally considered morally wrong are committed less than crimes that some may label restrictions. And many people do assess the morals of a situation according to their own values when it comes to making certain decisions, rather than according to the laws set in place. It seems that the best way to explain what crime is, is by allowing that it is indeed created by the lawmakers. It is constructed socially, by people who set rules that are intended to govern societies. By setting these rules, they create the possibility of crime, which is defined as the breaking of these rules. Crime can be trivial, or very severe. Criminal offenses generally result in punishment, which is intended to deter crime, but when people do not see their actions as wrong, their main goal is not to refrain from their actions, but rather to find away not to be caught for committing them. The Emergence of Crime Crime is socially created by any form of government. As Thomas Hobbes explains in his book Leviathan, before people become socially organized, and give up their natural rights that may include harming others for personal gain (as there are no laws or requirements in some state of nature except to do what prolongs one’s life), it seems that people consenting to give up their natural rights gives way to crime, which results when one infringes on the life or property of another. Any successful social organization must allow for crime, which results when people do as they please with regards to others, instead of recognizing everyone’s civil rights. Any social community that has any order will have the possibility of crime. People are not perfect, and laws that allow for crime as they are broken must be set to deter the criminal activities that one would freely participate in without rules. People in poorer communities often have more incentive to engage in criminal acts, but it is not necessarily socially constructed by the criminals. The existence of crime may just as easily be attributed to the lawmakers who themselves allow for crime by creating rules for society. Bibliography Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press Rafter, N. (1990) The Social Construction of Crime and Crime Control. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency Vol. 27, No. 4, 376-389. Welsh, I. (2005). The Social Construction of Crime. The Agonist. http://agonist. org/story/2005/12/23/121952/67

Interpreter turns Essay Example for Free

Interpreter turns Essay One consequence of using an explicit utterance to stop Ð ° speaker is that an interpreter takes Ð ° turn to do so. Saying wait-Ð °-minute (or holdyour-turn) is not Ð ° turn initiated by Ð ° primary speaker. In managing discourse flow, interpreter’s become turn-taking participants to direct and allocate turns to the primary speakers. This is Ð ° kind of turn-taking that interpreters do. In this section, however, І describe two other kinds of turns taken by the Interpreter during this meeting. One kind of turn is to offer Ð ° turn; both of these are directed at the Student. The second kind of turn is an independent turn in which the Interpreter beckons the Student to say something. Offering Turns Offering Ð ° turn generally happens when Ð ° speaker has made an attempt to say something. In this first example, the Professor has the answering machine on, and the recording is playing. During that talk, the Professor turns and says, Sorry to the Student and turns back to look at the machine. The Student receives that interpretation, turns to look at the Professor, and brings up his hands as if to speak, but changes his mind. In ASL, this can be likened to someone saying, uhm and then saying never mind. As the Students hands go down, the Interpreter leans forward toward the Student, extends an open palm, and raises his eyebrows which in ASL signal Ð ° question. Although the Interpreter does not actually execute any sign (Ð ° grammatical unit), his gesture means, Do you want to say something? When the Interpreter offers the opportunity for the Student to take Ð ° turn, the Student refuses, and his hands lower, then the Interpreter returns to interpreting the answering machine so that the Student will know that the machine problem continues, Knowing that one primary participant is preoccupied and that people can work Ð ° machine and talk at the same time, it is reasonable to offer the Student an opportunity to say something. In the next example, again the Interpreter offers Ð ° turn to the Student. The Professor has just offered Ð ° final solution to the problem of when the Student should turn in his transcript. She has suggested that he make copies to pass out the next week to be included with the copies she will make of transcripts that is turned in today. As this portion winds down, both begin to utter short responses like ok and good. After the Student says WELL which could mean he thought of something to say, the Interpreter gesturesÐ ° slight lean forward, an open palm extended toward the Student, and eyebrows rose, as if to say Do you want to say something? Again, the Interpreter offers Ð ° conversational opening for the Student as if to say is there anything else you want to say? Again, the Student does not have Ð ° question or Ð ° content message so he just says, knowing that this topic is coming to an end, thats fine. What is interesting about offering Ð ° turn is that the Interpreter must take Ð ° turn to offer Ð ° turn. Both taking Ð ° turn and offering Ð ° turn are indicative of the complex nature of an interpreters involvement in the communicative process of an interpreted event. The Interpreters participation in the flow of discourse supports the findings of Berk-Seligson (199o), Metzger (1995), Wadensjo (1992, 1998), and others, suggesting that the nature of an interpreters rights and obligations bear intensive, continued study When, in other situations, do interpreter’s offer turns? And, how do interpreters know when to offer turns? Taking Ð ° Turn This segment is, perhaps, the most significant extract of talk from the entire meeting. Within this span, the Interpreter intervenes to beckon the Student to say something. This activity in the discourse process marks the potential breadth and scope of an interpreters ability to influence both the direction and outcome of this event. These decisions, more than any other, are indications of experience and the accumulated knowledge of how these social scenes should play out so that all participants experience an outcome that is satisfactory. This segment becomes Ð ° negotiation between Professor and Student, as the discussion of linguistic features in the transcript comes to an end, the Student asks if he should revise the transcript for next weeks class. The Professor wanted it today (Wednesday) but asks the Student if he could have it ready the following Monday. The Student told the Professor previously that he would be out of town for the weekend giving Ð ° presentation, implying that he cannot have it ready for Monday. The Student repeats this information, and the conversation comes to Ð ° halt. At this point, the Interpreter leans forward and executes Ð ° beckoning gesture to the Student. The Interpreter urges the Student to say something. When the Professor asks if the Student could give her transcript by Monday, the Student says, І get back from Rochester Sunday and stops talking, the Professor says ok and uhm and looks at the floor. The Interpreter already knows that the Student has said the wrong thing because the Interpreters uh as the Professor says ok is not Ð ° rendering of anyones talk, and he opens the possibility that there is more to be said. And, in fact, the Interpreter does not interpret what the Professor says; rather he leans forward and with Ð ° gesture bids the Student to talk. Right on cue, the Student does; he offers Ð ° solution: How bout Wednesday morning before class? The Interpreter, recognizing that, typically, American student’s do not tell professors no either directly or indirectly when asked to turn in an assignment, prompts the Student to say more, In so doing, the Interpreter takes Ð ° self-motivated turn and influences the outcome of this interaction. Practicing interpreters might suggest that this action by the Interpreter violates professional codes of conductthose concerned with interfering in Ð ° situation. But І would argue that the Interpreter has instead followed the first commandment of any interpreting code of conductto interpret the spirit and intent of Ð ° message. The Interpreter, knowing that the Student may not know or may not always be able to apply appropriate ways of speaking in these situations, has assisted the Student in behaving appropriately during this interaction. The Student spent all his academic years, up until now, in educational institutions geared toward Deaf persons, Ð ° state school for the Deaf and Gallaudet University, the only Liberal Arts University for the Deaf in the world. Although everyone he has encountered may not have known how to use ASL, theyve accommodated Deaf ways of speaking or have presented skewed versions of ways of speaking and behaving in traditional American institutions. As sociolinguists have argued, many ethnicities in the United States maintain their own ways of speaking and do not flourish in American mainstream situations. That interpreters offer turns and even take turns of their own alters the direction and perhaps even the outcome of interpreted conversational exchanges. The nature of this activity has only recently begun to be studied and, obviously, demands further study.

The ancient Greek olympics

The ancient Greek olympics Many people know a lot about the Olympic Games. Ancient games were a lot smaller than the Olympic Games today with only 300 contestants from 11 different countries. All of America has heard the devastating news that occurred this year at the 2010 Olympics. Nodar Kumaritashvili died after crashing into a metal pole during a luge race. He was only 21 years old competing at the Vancouver Olympics and it took his life. Many people do not realize how violent and dangerous certain Olympic events are. To fully understand the importance of the Olympics you need to know about the Ancient Olympic Games (Papantoniou). According to Findling, Heracles, Zeuss son, founded the ancient Olympics. Yet the first Olympic Games were held in 776 BCE. At this Olympic Games, a runner named Coroebus, won the running event. Coroebus became the very first Olympic champion. The ancient Olympic Games became bigger and more popular so they continued to be played every four years for nearly 1,200 years (Findling). At the beginning, the Olympic Games were played as part of a religious practice. People put their passion for religion into sport and competition. This hereby became a religious ritual for the Greeks (Papantoniou). The Olympic Games were the most famous of all other games by far and they were held in Olympia. According to Papantoniou, the idea of rebirth soon came along and when it did many cults were formed. The idea of rebirth came from the idea of creation. We are created from the coming together of a male and female, which was obvious. During this process of birth, the Earth has been said to give us life. The Earth, with the help of Mother Nature, contains everything that people need to live. The divine force of Mother Nature created the idea of rebirth. Soon the religious cults were formed and competition became an important ritual (Papantoniou). The purpose of the Olympic events was to demonstrate bodily strength and vigor (Papantoniou). According to Findling, once the first full moon came out the games were able to begin. At the beginning, the games only lasted a day but soon the games became so popular new sports were added. Soon, the games lasted a full five days. The first day of the festival was meant for sacrifices for the Gods. Some athletes liked to pray alone and make sacrifices themselves. Most Greek athletics were for one person to compete with another as opposed to playing on teams. The athletes took part in running, wrestling, disc-throwing, boxing, javelin-hurling and many other sports. The second day of the games was the day of the foot-race. There was not merely one type of race that the athletes took part in. There were four different kinds. The first and oldest was stadion, where runners sprinted for 1 stade, which was the length of the stadium. The other races were a 2-stade and long-distance races. The fourth type of race involved runners wearing full armor. This race was good for preparing men for the military. It increased strength and stability for the men competing to get them ready for war. The other events besides the races were held after the second day of the Games. Pancratium, which was a mix of wrestling and boxing, got kind of intense. To succeed in wrestling the player was to heave the other wrestler on the ground three times. It was not that simple, however. The opponent couldnt just land any such way. They were to land on their hip, back or shoulder. To avoid any serious injury, ancient Greece had specific rules that were to be followed. Biting your opponent and grabbing their genitals was frowned upon during wrestling or the pancratium. When the games had first begun, boxing was not very violent. Although boxing was not too intense, protection was very important. The Greeks were always looking for ways to avoid injury in games like this. In this case, the boxers put leather on their fingers, much like a modern day boxing glove. These leather straps helped with the pain of being hit. However, as time went on, the players came up with more and more violent strategies to make their way to the top. After this more protection was necessary and new finger straps were created. The intensity of boxing was nothing compared to that of the pancratium. It was so brutal that it was not declared over until one of the players accepted defeat. The people who had enough money to own horses were able to train their horses to compete in races. There were races where the horse wore a saddle to make riding easier but in other races the horse had to be bareback. Bareback riding is riding without a saddle which was very difficult because the riders had nothing to hold onto. Much like when a man wins a competition he receives an olive branch, so does the winning horse. The person who trained and rode the horse to victory receives no credit. In the Olympics there were also Chariot races. These races included small chariots led by 2 horses and larger ones led by 4 horses. The pentathlon came after the day of the horse races. The pentathlon included five sports for the athletes to take part in. The events were all very different from one another. Sprinting and wrestling were two of the five events. It was tough since all of the events were so different. If an athlete succeeded at one event he might fail at another. Many of the athletes had to throw javelins and discuses as part of their competition. The final event in the pentathlon was the long jump. Not only was strength important but also stamina and precision (Findling). In order to succeed at jumping the farthest many men would use weights to make them jump further. Many people from out of the area would come to Olympia for their religious festivals. These popular festivals brought many more athletes to the area looking to play in the Games. Gymnasiums were built in Greece for people to practice and play less serious games. The gymnasiums were not only a place to practice but also a place to get protection from the sun. Each gymnasium contained a bath for men to not only clean but also to oil themselves. Athletes often covered themselves in oil before competing in the hot sun for protection (Findling). These competitive games were taken very seriously and they symbolized many things. According to Papantoniou, if you won a game, instead of getting a medal or a trophy, you were crowned with a wild olive branch. The olive branch symbolizes God so if you are crowned, the olive branch promises godliness and that you will live forever. According to Findling, after winning a competition, the winners would return home only to be escorted to their own town. According to Papantoniou, if you won a competition you would therefore have a divine presence and just the thought of you would bring up the word fertility. After these competitions were made-up, fertility of nature became associated with these human activities. A triumph in any one of these games was seen as a direct effect of divine will. The winners were looked upon as heroes or even gods to everyone. These physical activities both influenced the ritual process and were influenced by it in turn (Papantoniou). According to Fling, rewar ds were given to the winners of certain events such as wrestling and boxing from the pain that one must endure. According to Findling, Greek literature and art all included athletics in some way shape or form. Physical ability was extremely important to the Greeks. Not only physical strength was important but also strength of the mind. According to Papantoniou, some people believed that the Olympic Games were a creative way to select their king. When the King competed in the games, if he was not the winner, everyone would know that he was not a worthy leader. He cannot continue to be King if his power and vigor begin to decline. For this reason the Olympics was to be held so that the Kings strength could be put to the test. In the mythical era, everyone believed that if the King won it was because he was chosen by God. If the King lost, God has chosen someone else to take over. Cronus, Zeus, Apollo, Hermes and Ares were the first to participate in the games, followed by Idaean Heracles, Pelops, Oenomaeus, Heracles, the Dioscouri and a whole host of kings and rulers (Papantoniou). According to Papantoniou, the Olympic Games were mostly for men to watch. Unmarried women were allowed to attend to find a husband. However, married women were not allowed to watch on pain of death (Papantoniou). According to Fling, although unmarried women were allowed to attend the Olympic Games, there were only certain days on which they were able to. If any woman was to be caught at the Olympic Games on a day that they were not supposed to be, they were to be pushed down Mount Typaeum. Mount Typaeum was a tall mountain that expanded from Scillus to Olympia and it would be torture for anyone who fell down it. The only woman who has ever been caught at the Games when she wasnt supposed to be was Callipateria. Her son was to compete in the Olympics so she disguised herself as a trainer. Her son, Peisirodus was victorious. Soon Callipaterias identity had become known. She was scared for her life. Her father, brother and son all competed in the Olympic Games and all were victorious. B ecause of this, there was an exception to the rule and she was left unpunished. Because of her mistakes there has been a new law put in place for trainers to show themselves before coming into the area with the players (Fling). According to Durrant, The real question here is not who can attend the Olympics but who can compete. Of course not all people who want to participate can participate. Like many things in life there were restrictions for the Olympic Games. Only free-born Greek citizens were allowed to participate in the Olympic Games (Durrant). Boys competed with boys. Men competed with men of the same age. Only at Sparta, did girls take part in the contest. To be eligible for participation in the Olympic Games, a competitor must observe the traditional Olympic spirit and ethic and have always participated in sport as an avocado without having received any remuneration for his participation (Durrant). According to Durrant, Amateurs are frowned upon during the Olympics. An amateur is anyone who decides to participate in the games merely for their own benefits. These benefits may include social benefits, physical or mental benefits. Its better to see a man take on a task just to test himself. There is n ot a problem as long as the competition is constrained to a distinct population. There will be a problem when a competitor moves to a different population that has more rigid rules and standards. Professionalism began in the sixth century B.C. when Solon decided that anyone who won in the Olympic Games would be given 500 drachmae. Soon after the invention of professionalism, athletic games became a full time job for some. Plato said that the athlete who ends by becoming a hater of philosophy, uncivilized, never using weapons of persuasion,à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬he is like a wild beast, all violence and fierceness, and knows no other way of dealing; and he lives in all ignorance and evil conditions, and has no sense of propriety and grace (Durrant). You may be wondering what the proper attire for the Olympic Games were in ancient times. According to Fling, The Lacedaemonians were the first players who decided that being naked during the games were easier. They also are the ones who discovered the protection that oil gave their bodies. Before nudity, the competitors wore nothing but loin cloths (Fling). According to Fling, the ancient Olympic Games ended 393 AC. The modern Olympics began at the end of the XIX century. Baron Pierre de Coubertin brough back the Olympics with his impressive proposal. Everyone was so excited about the return of the Olympics that the first Modern Olympic Games were to take place in Athens in 1896. Before Baron, other people had tried to bring the Olympics back but no one was successful. So as we can see much about the Olympics has changed. Although the Olympics were invented in ancient times, they still live on today. Works Cited Durrant, Sue M. And Who May Compete?. Quest (00336297) 22.(1974): 104-110. SPORTDiscus with Full Text. EBSCO. Web. 4 Feb. 2010. Findling, J. E., Pelle, K. D. (1996). Historical Dictionary of the Modern Olympic Movement. Westport: Greenwood Press. Fling, Fred Morrow. A Source Book of Greek History. 1907. 04 February 2010 . Papantoniou, G. Religiosity as a main element in the ancient Olympic Games. Sport in Society 11.1 (2008): 32-43. SPORTDiscus with Full Text. EBSCO. Web. 2 Feb. 2010.

A Critical Review of F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby Essay

A Critical Review of F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald is a universal and timeless literary masterpiece. Fitzgerald writes the novel during his time, about his time, and showing the bitter deterioration of his time. A combination of the 1920s high society lifestyle and the desperate attempts to reach its illusionary goals through wealth and power creates the essence behind The Great Gatsby. Nick Carraway, the narrator, moves to a quaint neighborhood outside of New York City called West Egg; his distant cousin and his former colleague, Daisy and Tom, live in a physically identical district across the bay called East Egg. The affluent couple quickly exposes Nick to the corrupting effect of wealth and materialism. He often serves as a sophisticated observer at several fashionable parties, yet he remains uninvolved in the hedonistic lifestyle. Jay Gatsby, the man who gives his name to the book, lives in an extraordinary estate adjacent to Nick, where he incessantly welcomes guests to sumptuous parties. Nick develops a fixation and a selfless devotion to Gatsby. Gatsby is a dreamer, absorbed by the past, and Nick reluctantly aids him in attempts to fulfill his ideal. The impractical illusions, in the end, destroy Gatsby and lead Nick to see the ultimate manifestation of corrupt American society. In The Great Gatsby, greed and corruption centralize the theme. Fitzgerald uses the contemporary public as a core of life for his characters. Gatsby’s intent to win a love from his past by the display of lavish possessions results in annihilation. He was doomed from the beginning by his avaricious wishful thinking. Gatsby’s approach to attain his goal was encumbered by immoral mann... ...irrationality. This is the behavior one would expect from new money. Acting as one from an established background, Gatsby remains calm, yet forcibly declares his righteousness. The primary symbolism of the car comes at the end. The car, of wealth and power, causes brutal devastation to each character in different ways. In conclusion, The Great Gatsby is a morally and historically enlightening classic about the moral decline in the 1920s. F. Scott Fitzgerald fabricated brilliant symbolic allusions in every line of writing. The book never loses meaning, for it comes from an unforgettable, real time period in American society. It is recommended for a person of any age, race, or gender who is interested in understanding a peculiar part of what the modern world has become. F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby truly captures the essence of American literature.

Sigmund Freud Essay -- essays research papers fc

Freud didn't exactly invent the idea of the conscious versus unconscious mind, but he certainly was responsible for making it popular. The conscious mind is what you are aware of at any particular moment, your present perceptions, memories, thoughts, fantasies, feelings, etc. Working closely with the conscious mind is what Freud called the preconscious, what we might today call "available memory:" anything that can easily be made conscious, the memories you are not at the moment thinking about but can readily bring to mind. Now no one has a problem with these two layers of mind. But Freud suggested that these are the smallest parts. The largest part by far is the unconscious. It includes all the things that are not easily available to awareness, including many things that have their origins there, such as our drives or instincts, and things that are put there because we can't bear to look at them, such as the memories and emotions associated with trauma. According to Freud, the unconscious is the source of our motivations, whether they be simple desires for food or sex, neurotic compulsions, or the motives of an artist or scientist. And yet, we are often driven to deny or resist becoming conscious of these motives, and they are often available to us only in disguised form. Freudian psychological reality begins with the world, full of objects. Among them is a very special object, the organism. The organism is special in that it acts to survive and reproduce, and it is guided toward those ends by its needs such as hunger, thirst, the avoidance of pain, and sex. A part -- a very important part -- of the organism is the nervous system, which has as one its characteristics a sensitivity to the organism's needs. At birth, that nervous system is little more than that of any other animal, an "it" or id. The nervous system, as id, translates the organism's needs into motivational forces. Freud also called them wishes. This translation from need to wish is called the primary process. The id works in keeping with the pleasure principle, which can be understood as a demand to take care of needs immediately. Just picture the hungry infant, screaming itself blue. It doesn't "know" what it wants in any adult sense; it just knows that it wants it and it wants it now. The infant, in the Freudian view, is pure, or ... ... and represents the resurgence of the sex drive in adolescence, and the more specific focusing of pleasure in sexual intercourse. Freud felt that masturbation, oral sex, homosexuality, and many other things we find acceptable in adulthood today, were immature. This is a true stage theory, meaning that Freudians believe that we all go through these stages, in this order, and pretty close to these ages. Some of Freud's ideas are clearly tied to his culture and era. Other ideas are not easily testable. Some may even be a matter of Freud's own personality and experiences. But Freud was an excellent observer of the human condition, and enough of what he said has relevance today that he will be a part of personality textbooks for years to come. Even when theorists come up with dramatically different ideas about how we work, they compare their ideas with Freud's. BIBLIOGRAPHY McCary, J L. Psychology of Personality. New York 1956. Blum G S. A study of the Psychoanalytic Theory of Psychosexual Development NY 1949 Brill A. Freud's contribution to psychiatric. NY 1944 Reuben Fine. A critical re-evaluation of his theories NY 1962 P. Rieff. Freud The mind of the moralist NY 1959

Chinese language and literature Essay

Chinese is a unique language. Anyone who learns it will find it difficult to really understand and master the language if he/she does not completely cast away the habits and concepts acquired from his/her mother tongue or other foreign languages. Chinese is a language of great international importance in the present world of globalization. Modern Chinese (also known as Mandarin, Pu Tonghua or Guoyu) is spoken in the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan, and increasingly so in Hong Kong. It is one of the four official languages in Singapore. There are significant communities of Mandarin speakers in Malaysia, Indonesia, Russia, the USA, Mongolia, Vietnam, Brunei, South Africa, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, the UK and Mauritius. Mandarin is spoken by about 1 billion of people all over the world. It is also one of the five official languages of the United Nations. The communicative unit of Chinese is the sentence. Sentences in Chinese are quite different from those in other languages. During communication, certain parts of a sentence may often be omitted. This is one of the differences between Chinese and other languages. The language and script of the Chinese language belongs to the ‘Sino-Tibetan’ family. Chinese is also described as a tonal language, which means that a syllable generally is pronounced with a characteristic tone. On the whole Chinese lacks the inflections (suffixes, prefixes) that are characteristic of many other languages. While foreigners are under the impression that Chinese characters are countless, the fact remains that even China does not have anyone capable of mastering all the characters. The Kangxi dictionary of 1716 contains 47,000 characters whereas the Chinese dictionary of 1986-90 contains 56,000 characters. In fact there are only 3,000 characters which are often used. Other than being a language it is used for writing and keeping records. Chinese also has a great value in the field of calligraphy and is greatly appreciated as a work of art. Over the vast area throughout which Chinese is spoken, there are many different dialects. Some of which are mutually unintelligible. Chinese characters are the symbols used to write Chinese. Chinese characters developed more than 3000 years ago out of ideographs. Some of these are still in use today. Every Chinese written character represents a one-syllable word. Many Chinese words, however, are compounds composed of two or more characters. In these compounds each character contributes a meaning to the total concept. Modern Chinese characters fall into two categories: One with a phonetic component, the other without it. Majority of those without a phonetic component developed from pictographs. Characters of this type which do not contain phonetic components account for only a small proportion of all Chinese characters, but many of them are in common use. Most of the Chinese characters contain a phonetic component that tells the pronunciation and an idea component that indicates something of the meaning. These idea components are also called radicals and are often written on the left-hand side of the character. There are more than 250 radicals. The phonetic component is often a character in itself. If one knows the pronunciation of the character it is based on, one can know the pronunciation of many characters in which that component is used. One of the unsolved problems of â€Å"pinyin† is that some characters, though written differently and with different meaning, sound the same. However, usually one can tell from the context which one to use. The tone of a Chinese word is just as important as it s pronunciation. This aspect of speaking Chinese is the most difficult for English speaking people to learn. In English, the tone of a word varies with the mood of the sentence; in Chinese, the tone stays the same whether the sentence is a question, exclamation or a simple statement. The Chinese written language is an ancient and unique writing system with a history of 6000 years. There are a total of 60,000 characters, of which only 3000-4500 are frequently used. Ancient Chinese characters evolved from pictures. Each Chinese character is composed of various strokes. These strokes are basically straight lines. From top to bottom and left to right are the main directions. There are eight basic strokes used for writing Chinese characters. These strokes are used in a certain order to write Chinese characters. In the past few decades standard language has gradually been formed based on the language of the norm with Beijing as the norm and a grammar modeled on modern vernacular writing. This language is called ‘Pu Tonghua’ and is gradually being popularized. It will eventually become the form of spoken and written Chinese in universal use. b) Discuss the ways in which Chinas language and literature reflect other aspects of Chinas culture such as kinship, art, politics, religion, economics, and the Chinese world view in general. A Chinese name is composed of two parts – a surname and a given name. The surname comes first, followed by the given name. Most surnames are monosyllabic. The most common surnames are Zhang, Wang, Li, Zhao and Liu. There are a few disyllabic surnames such as Zhuge, Ouyang and Shangguan. Given names can be either monosyllabic or disyllabic.

Styal Mill Coursework Notes

Coursework factors Finally he decided on Styal, a small hamlet north of Wilmslow. Styal is located close to Manchester, the Bridge water canal is only 8 miles away and the land was big enough. One of the important reasons Greg chose the site is because of the transport links. The bridge water canal would provide easy shipping of cotton near to the mill, then the last few miles would have to be done by horse and cart. Manchester is close to Styal, this is good because Manchester was one of the biggest industrial cities and this would provide Greg with workers and raw materials.Liverpool is relatively close to Styal. Geographical factors also played a part in the choosing of the Styal location because on that land the river Bolin flowed through. Greg used the river Bolin as a power source for his mill and the machinery. Arkwrites water frame was invented to use the water to drive the wheel and drive lots of cogs and shafts that made the machinery run. Another factor is the land was che ap. This is because the land was infertile and wasn't very good for farming crops, so Greg got a good deal – cheap land with an added bonus, the river Bolin.Also the land was a good environment for cotton making because it had a damp atmosphere; this helps the cotton to not break as its being spun. Another factor was workers. Styal was close to many towns and cities. The main one was Manchester. Greg could employ workers from workhouses in Manchester to come and work in his mill. This was easy because Manchester was very close. Greg could also employ people from Liverpool for the same reasons. Also Greg employed a few people from as far as London also. Another factor was money. Greg came into a lot of money, ? 800. Samuel Greg chose the site for Quarry Bank Mill because: – It was near a river.The machines were powered by water and Samuel Greg needed a lot of water. Water – power is a cheap, reliable, fast flowing and easy source of getting power. Water was also needed to give to the workers to drink and put into the food. -There was a lot of land in the countryside. The more land Samuel Greg had, the bigger his factory could be and the more machines he could have. Samuel Greg got investors to pay towards him buying the land, as well as the huge amount of money he already had. The land he did choose was cheap anyway so not many investors were needed. -With the land being in the countryside, there was a lot of soil to grow crops in.The crops that were grown were given to the workers to eat at meal times. -Quarry Bank Mill was quite close to the main destinations Liverpool and Manchester. This was probably so that goods could travel to both of the destinations at the same amount of time. Lots of the cotton that Quarry Bank Mill produced was taken to the main destinations as cotton was popular there and could easily be sold for the price Samuel Greg wanted. Liverpool gave Quarry bank Mill the materials it needed to make cotton and Manchester s old the cotton. Transport like canals ; factor